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Cao Đài (Caodaism) is a native religion of Việt Nam that incorporates elements of other belief systems, such as Catholicism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism.

Although Caodaism represents both a nationalist ideology and a new religion with broad appeal, the expansion of Caodaism among the Vietnamese public led to divisions among Caodaist followers into different branches. Consequently, this has resulted in various power struggles, and these different branches have clashed with political interests.

The internal factions within Caodaism could not escape the chaos of the era and had to make difficult choices during the Japanese occupation (1941-1945), the First Indochina War (1946-1954), the Second Indochina War, and the Vietnam War (1955-1975). These conflicts have shaken the theological system that supports peace and the values of "universal brotherhood" taught by Caodaism.

From 1940 to 1965, Caodaist leaders had to make important choices regarding armed struggle, strategic cooperation, alliance selection, and diplomacy.

In Jérémy Jammes’ study titled " Caodaism in Times of War: Spirits of Struggle and Struggle of Spirits ,” the author addresses questions about the impact of these armed conflicts on Caodaist leaders, the tools they used to cope with violence during wartime, their political strategies, and their efforts to mitigate security risks, along with their plans for national unity. [1]

By focusing on the lives of three influential leaders of Caodaism—Phạm Công Tắc, Cao Triều Phát, and Trần Văn Quế—Jammes highlights the struggles they faced in choosing alliances, clarifies the differences in their ideas, examines their internal conflicts, and explains the critical similarity in their ultimate desire to transform Caodaism into the “national religion” of Việt Nam.

The study begins by outlining the critical characteristics of Caodaism, such as its theological foundation, rituals, and ambitious aspirations for expansion. It also highlights the scope of the research in understanding the conflicts of war and religion.

The researcher discusses the political vision of Caodaism and summarizes it into four distinctive features:

The use of written communication (Fuji) to connect with spiritual entities;

A utopian project of forming a "national religion";

Ethical issues faced during the war, such as dealing with wounded soldiers or caring for the unemployed and displaced individuals due to warfare; and

A new form of monarchy that Millennialism influenced.

Due to its size and a large number of Caodaism dignitaries present in the urban class and among state officials, this religion was able to establish a solid social management network over a portion of the population in Cochinchina (Southern Việt Nam) and later in the Republic of Vietnam. In other words, with such high numbers, Caodaist followers became a driving force behind the practical and tightly knit operation of the religion.

The study also addresses the political activities of Caodaist forces from 1940 to 1965, their scope of action, strategic military decisions, and the diplomatic efforts they carried out during this turbulent period.

Firstly, the study discusses the Defender of Dharma, Phạm Công Tắc.

During the Japanese occupation, Caodaist followers participated in the Phục Quốc movement (League for the Restoration of Việt Nam) led by Prince Cường Để, who was considered the direct descendant of Gia Long King. He was unrecognized by the ruling Nguyễn dynasty and the French colonial regime. Phạm Công Tắc openly expressed his desire to restore power to Cường Để and establish a central government with three relatively autonomous local governments.

In the 1940s, Caodaist dignitaries raised the flag to support the Axis powers. They hoped their victory would help restore the reign of Cường Để, who would declare Caodaism as the official religion of the constitutional monarchy.

However, French colonial authorities intervened by closing the Tây Ninh Holy See, suppressing Caodaist officials, and exiling Phạm Công Tắc to a prison in Madagascar. In response, Trần Quang Vinh, a high-ranking dignitary under Phạm Công Tắc, quickly formed a pro-Japanese Caodaist army.

Nevertheless, when they could no longer rely on the Japanese forces, Trần Quang Vinh reluctantly accepted cooperating with the Viet Minh to establish a united front against the French.

Subsequently, France reversed the situation, brought Phạm Công Tắc back to Việt Nam, offered a political cooperation agreement, and recognized the République autonome de Cochinchine for Caodaist followers. Upon his return from exile, Phạm Công Tắc openly called on his fellow Caodaists to collaborate with the French.

In September 1946, the Việt Minh launched a bloody campaign to suppress Caodaism.

To safeguard the influence of Caodaism and protect their followers from violence and potential abuse of power by the Việt Minh, Caodaist dignitaries requested rearmament from France. France agreed to provide weapons and allowed them to participate in the "pacification" process in the province of Tây Ninh. This agreement initiated a long-term military alliance between the Tây Ninh Holy See and France.

Nevertheless, the Holy See later exploited this agreement and created its own army to protect Caodaist dignitaries, particularly Phạm Công Tắc. Trần Quang Vinh and Phạm Công Tắc controlled several military units, which had the dual mission of fighting against the Việt Minh and providing intelligence to the Holy See regarding the intentions and activities of France in each province.

During the French withdrawal from Indochina in 1954, Caodaist soldiers lost almost all their fighting spirit against the Việt Minh, leading to mass desertions. In response, the supreme dignitaries expanded the military structure into a new phase to strengthen their ranks.

After the French defeat at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ in 1954, negotiations between the French government and Hồ Chí Minh in Geneva may have involved the future of Caodaism. Phạm Công Tắc, as a member of the Caodaist delegation, traveled to Paris to meet with the President of France.

Upon his return, Phạm Công Tắc prioritized restoring political stability in the areas that Caodaism still controlled. However, his anti-communist and anti-Catholic tone changed after the French retreat, the division of Việt Nam, and the rise of Catholic devotee Ngô Đình Diệm in the southern region.

The Ngô Đình Diệm regime exerted pressure and intensified repression to eliminate the military strength of Caodaism in 1955. Phạm Công Tắc was subsequently exiled to Phnom Penh. Amidst the crackdowns, many Caodaist followers abandoned their autonomy project. Others joined the Việt Minh or the forces of the Ngô Đình Diệm government, while some went into hiding.

Based on the evolution of conflicts during specific periods and locations, it can be observed that the continuous changes in the structure and tactics of Phạm Công Tắc's plans reflected the political and military standing and viewpoint of the Tây Ninh Holy See.

The story of Phạm Công Tắc has become widely known in political and religious spheres, overshadowing public attention with the actions of other Caodaist dignitaries who may not have necessarily complied with his decisions. One notable example is Cao Triều Phát. His religious career, like his political decisions, can be considered unique.

After spending time in France, Cao Triều Phát returned to Việt Nam in 1922 to engage in politics and established the Indochinese Labour Party in 1926. He was later elected to the Cochin Chinese Board of Administration in 1930, but his party dissolved soon after. He officially converted to Caodaism in 1932.

He founded the Caodaist sect called Minh Chơn Đạo, along with Trần Đạo Quang. This sect is known for being similar to Communism. In 1945, he became the chairman of the Unified Association of the Eleven Caodaist Denominations (Cao Ðài Hiệp Nhứt 11 Phái in Vietnamese), excluding the Tây Ninh sect.

Cao Triều Phát officially joined the Việt Minh in August 1945 and became the Chairman of the Committee of National Liberation of Bạc Liêu Province. The Holy See of the Minh Chơn Đạo sect was considered the headquarters of Communist resistance in the area.

In early 1946, under pressure from French forces, Cao Triều Phat retreated to the Holy See of Minh Chơn Đạo and established a provincial-level resistance base and a communist headquarters.

On October 14, 1947, he established the Unified Association of the Twelve Caodaist Denominations (Hội Cao Đài Cứu quốc 12 phái hợp nhứt in Vietnamese) for Patriotic Salvation with the ambition of forming a Caodaist-Communist national liberation front against colonial invasion.

Upon his death, the government, led by Hồ Chí Minh, organized a solemn funeral to commemorate his contributions.

It can be seen that the career of Cao Triều Phát was closely tied to the Việt Minh and served as evidence of the vibrant expansion of Caodaism.

In his research, Jammes mentions another Caodaist leader, Trần Văn Quế. He argues that the story of Trần Văn Quế is rarely discussed in studies on the history of Caodaism, despite Trần Văn Quế's actions having long-lasting impacts on Caodaism's political and internal dynamics.

Trần Văn Quế is portrayed as a figure who was involved in the early days of the struggle against the religious schism forming among Caodaist followers. Caodaism has always viewed its internal division as an inherent weakness. Trần Văn Quế saw, in that division, an opportunity to unite and develop new strategies to resist colonial forces and avoid getting entangled in the military activities of the Tây Ninh Holy See.

Clarifying the biographies and actions of key figures on the political stage is a complex yet necessary task. Moreover, the researcher effectively applies this approach in studying the conflicts in South Việt Nam at that time.

On the other hand, Jammes also believes that further research should not be limited to the biographies of well-known Caodaist figures, especially considering the relationship between war and religion in Việt Nam.

Jérémy Jammes studies the paths chosen by these leaders and examines various aspects, such as the short-term tactics or long-term objectives in the political, religious, and military realms. This allows readers to trace the changes in Caodaist leaders' ambitions and personalities within the context of war.

In reality, the Tây Ninh Holy See could not gain the loyalty of all Caodaist followers. Many Caodaist branches gained power and influence regarding theology and politics in the indigenous context at that time.

Looking at Caodaist followers beyond the Tây Ninh Holy See reveals important details about the political scene in Indochina and helps us understand the often-ignored power dynamics, strategies, and key figures in history.

This research helps readers avoid the inherent misconceptions and biases in understanding Caodaism. Instead, it emphasizes the continuous dispersion, development, and expansion of Caodaist followers in various locations and the religion’s constantly changing strategies depending on the wartime context. It contributes to a new interpretation of the vibrant expansion of Caodaism.

This article was published in Luat Khoa Magazine on April 29, 2023. Lee Nguyen translated this into English, and The Vietnamese Magazine has the copyrights of the translation.

Cao Đài’s Evolution During the Indochina War

Lee Nguyen

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