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In debates regarding human rights, the Vietnamese government has historically aligned itself with cultural relativism rather than universalism. [1]

While universalism asserts that democratic principles apply to all humanity regardless of history, Dr. Surain Subramaniam notes that cultural relativism argues the opposite: political systems must reflect a nation's unique characteristics. Certain universal values—such as democracy and respect for human rights—lack worth or merit in certain societies. [2]

This relativistic stance crystallized in the concept of “Asian values,” which originated in Singapore in the mid-1970s. Proponents used this concept to counter Western human rights norms. In practice, however, “Asian values” have often served as a justification for Asian states to exercise unlimited power and restrict individual freedoms in the name of social order and political stability.

Việt Nam, along with nations like China and Myanmar, actively supports this stance . [3] This raises critical questions: What exactly are “Asian values,” and do they truly reflect the culture of Việt Nam? Furthermore, who possesses the authority to define what constitutes the "authentic" values of the country?

Asian Values from the Perspective of Việt Nam

A 2018 research paper titled “ Asian Values and Human Rights: A Vietnamese Perspective ” by lecturers from Vietnam National University, Hà Nội examines how “Asian values” are utilized in the Vietnamese context. [4] The study notes that both the Communist Party of Việt Nam and the State of Việt Nam invoke this concept when framing human rights. Much like Lee Kuan Yew in Singapore, these political leaders are strongly influenced by Confucian ideas of governance.

However, the authors argue that Confucianism is not the sole foundation of political thought in the country. Instead, they contend that the current usage of “Asian values” is primarily a political construct. It fails to accurately reflect the diverse traditions and cultural practices—such as Buddhism—that also emphasize human rights in Việt Nam.

In reality, the cultural and political foundations of Việt Nam are shaped by a complex interweaving of multiple ideologies. When understood in their specific historical contexts, “Vietnamese values” align more closely with the core principles of universal human rights than with the political discourses used to justify the status quo.

Confucian Values

Vietnamese culture is deeply influenced by the interplay of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. While Confucianism and Taoism shaped social practices in China from around the 5th century BCE, the version that became the dominant political ideology in Việt Nam was the “state-centered” form applied by Chinese emperors from the 2nd century BCE onward.

This ideology was notably consolidated in Việt Nam during the reign of Lê Thánh Tông (1460–1497), where it was codified to strengthen social cohesion. Confucianism constructs a normative social system focused on individual obligations, political hierarchy, and the priority of the public good over individual interests. Aligned with these ideals, traditional Vietnamese people view themselves primarily as members of a family, village, and nation. A “community spirit” is exalted, while individuals who prioritize their own interests are often viewed as selfish—a sentiment that permeates Vietnamese cultural norms.

However, the application of this doctrine is complex. It remains unclear whether Việt Nam was ever truly a Confucian state—in the sense of a state with obligations to society—or simply a state that governed social order. While the law was often based on “moral rules” rather than supreme legal norms—implying a “non-rule-of-law” society—resistance to rigid political orthodoxy did emerge. Scholars such as Hồ Quý Ly (1336–1407), Nguyễn Huệ (1753–1792), and Nguyễn Trường Tộ (1830–1871) actively challenged the status quo.

This localization of Confucianism resulted in noteworthy legal codes, most famously the Hồng Đức Code (Quốc triều hình luật), drafted during the Lê dynasty (1428–1789). Regarded as progressive, this code incorporated positive Confucian elements to elevate human value and rights. It explicitly acknowledged private property rights, civil liability for compensation, women’s inheritance rights, the protection of minorities and children, and many other communal rights.

Under this system, the law blended governance with ethical norms, such as respect for elders, women, and the collective responsibility to care for the poor. The king bore moral responsibility for the people's welfare and social stability, and officials were expected to respect the populace.

Thus, despite the heavy influence of hierarchy, governance was established on humane laws that respected human dignity, rather than solely on the arbitrary power of kings and officials.

Buddhist Values

Another set of values with deep influence in Vietnamese culture stems from Buddhism. Introduced from India around the 1st century CE, it was regarded as a national religion for much of the following millennium. Unlike state-imposed systems, Buddhist values were integrated organically into village life and cultural identity.

Buddhism instilled principles such as non-discrimination, dignity, equality, inviolability of the self, and compassion (metta)—concepts that align closely with universal human rights. Central to this is the idea that each person is “a Buddha in the making,” recognizing the value of the individual rather than just the collective. While it was fostered by kings and at times mobilized to serve the state, it generally coexisted with animistic beliefs and Hindu influences rather than being tightly organized.

However, Buddhism’s political prominence started to decline during the Lê dynasty as the ruling class shifted toward Confucianism. The Lê dynasty employed Confucianism to justify the legitimacy of power, building laws based on moral rules that emphasized obedience and placed public order above individual interests. Consequently, many Buddhist values that supported human rights were not carried forward into the state framework.

These values resurfaced during the struggle for independence against French colonialism, notably in the Phong trào Duy Tân movement. Yet, the political landscape remained complex. Many nationalist reformers, such as Phan Bội Châu and Phan Chu Trinh, prioritized national sovereignty over Western notions of human rights; in their framework, individual freedom was often considered secondary to the survival of the nation.

Later, after Hồ Chí Minh declared independence in 1945, the Communist Party of Việt Nam pursued policies that were often anti-religious, viewing Buddhism as being in opposition to Marxist dogma. Thus, throughout history, authorities have often leaned on Confucian or nationalist thought to resist social reforms, sidelining the humanistic potential of Buddhist values.

From Tradition to Modernity

Following the imposition of French colonial rule in the 19th century, the dominance of Confucian thought declined significantly. This erosion accelerated with the rise of Marxist ideology, which became the foundation of the modern Vietnamese state.

Despite this shift, Marxism and Confucianism share distinct similarities. Both emphasize collective interests over the individual, prize social harmony, and mandate an active role for the state in maintaining order.

It is arguable that these ideological overlaps enabled the Communist state to easily maintain restrictions on individual rights, justifying them—much like the Confucians did—in the name of the collective good.

Vietnamese Values are Compatible with Universal Human Rights

Supporters of “Asian values” argue that human rights are alien to Eastern cultures, deriving solely from the West. However, this view ignores the reality that Asia is an extremely diverse region; the experiences of Việt Nam are distinct from those of Japan or Singapore. Consequently, the “Asian values” argument is best understood as a political doctrine used by leaders to counter Western ideological debates, rather than a genuine reflection of culture.

However, as the authors analyzing Confucianism and Buddhism have shown, many social and political values are fully compatible with the foundational principles of universal human rights.

Therefore, it is clear that “Asian values” are, in essence, a political doctrine of some Asian leaders used in ideological debates with the West.

In reality, Vietnamese cultural identity, shaped by Buddhism, Confucianism, and indigenous traditions, is fully compatible with universal human rights. Values such as tolerance and human dignity have long existed in the national consciousness, resembling the principles found in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Thus, the claim that traditional, communal, or indigenous Vietnamese values are incompatible with human rights is unfounded.

Historically, Việt Nam has supported pluralism, with Buddhism and Confucianism coexisting for centuries. Even Marxism-Leninism, which has shaped modern policy, theoretically shares the collectivist aspect of “Asian values,” though the latter is rarely cited in lawmaking.

Progress is visible in the 2013 Constitution, which recognizes a broader scope of human rights in language closer to international norms. However, a gap remains between text and practice. Implementation depends on the will of authorities, who frequently invoke Confucian hierarchies and “Asian values” to maintain social order and political stability, thereby slowing the process of democratization.

Despite this, pressure for reform is increasing through internal dialogue and international integration. By reevaluating Vietnamese cultural values as indigenous foundations for universal human rights, and not as barriers, new spaces for legal and political reform may open in the future.

Hoàng Mai wrote this article in Vietnamese and published it in Luật Khoa Magazine on Jan. 15, 2026. Đàm Vĩnh Hằng translated it into English for The Vietnamese Magazine.

References: +

Cerrato-DAmico, P. (1997). International legitimacy through human rights? : Vietnam since reunification. In UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) . https://doi.org/10.26190/unsworks/6716

Phạm Văn Lừng. (2025, October 28). Văn hoá châu Á có phù hợp với mô hình dân chủ tự do? Luật Khoa tạp chí. https://luatkhoa.com/2024/12/van-hoa-chau-a-co-phu-hop-voi-mo-hinh-dan-chu-tu-do/

Lloret Blackburn, R. & Institut Català Internacional per la Pau. (2011). Cultural relativism in the Universal Periodic Review of the Human Rights Council (J. Alcalde & R. Grasa, Eds.). https://upr-info.org/sites/default/files/documents/2011-09/-blackburn_upr_cultural_relativism.09.2011.pdf#:~:text=On%20the%20other%20hand%2C%20those%20countries%20that,applied%20and%20therefore%2C%20on%20a%20respective%20culture .

Huong Ngo, Giao Vu Cong, Minh Tam Nguyen. (2018). Asian Values and Human Rights: A Vietnamese perspective. Journal of Southeast Asian Human Rights , 2 (1), 302. https://doi.org/10.19184/jseahr.v2i1.7541

Are Vietnamese Values Compatible with Universal Human Rights?

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