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Initiated before the 1954 Geneva Accords, Land Reform was the first major civilian policy implemented by the Communist Party of Vietnam (then the Vietnam Workers’ Party). Although briefly suspended during the 1954 civilian migration, the program resumed and continued until 1956.

The topic remained strictly taboo until the Đổi Mới reforms of 1986, yet the question of the party's responsibility for the campaign's victims remains unresolved today. Specifically, the role of President Hồ Chí Minh—the party’s supreme leader—and his failure to prevent these abuses continue to be questioned.

Vietnamese American scholar Alex Thái Võ examined this issue in a 62-page research article published in the Journal of Vietnamese Studies in 2015, titled “ Nguyen Thi Nam and the Land Reform in North Vietnam, 1953. ” [1]

Currently a Research Assistant Professor at Texas Tech University's Vietnam Center and Sam Johnson Vietnam Archive, Võ built his study on witness interviews and Communist Party documents from the National Library, National Archives Center No. 3 in Hà Nội, and various provincial archives across Thái Nguyên, Phú Thọ, Thanh Hóa, Nghệ An, Nam Định, and Thái Bình.

His research concludes that Hồ Chí Minh, acting as both party chairman and state president, was fully aware of the events surrounding the Land Reform. This is especially evident in the case of Nguyễn Thị Năm (Cát Hanh Long). While previous arguments suggest Hồ Chí Minh opposed her execution, historical evidence indicates he possessed the power to save her at any time.

To understand Nguyễn Thị Năm’s case, however, one must first examine the broader nature of the Land Reform campaign as detailed in Võ's findings.

Consolidating Power

Land redistribution was not exclusive to North Việt Nam. In the South, the Republic of Vietnam under President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu enacted the “ Land-to-the-Tiller ” program to transfer land from wealthy owners to poorer farmers. [2] However, the Southern program was executed without public denunciation campaigns.

This difference has led many to argue that the Northern Land Reform was merely a pretext for organizing public denunciations. If the sole objective was land redistribution, authorities could have simply confiscated and reassigned the property. The necessity of denunciation sessions points to a different motive entirely.

This argument is supported by archival evidence at National Archives Center No. 3, most notably “Preliminary Opinions of Comrade Luo Guibo on Mass Mobilization in 1953.” In this document, Luo Guibo (La Quý Ba)—China’s chief political adviser in Việt Nam—outlined what Alex Thái Võ describes as the “basic structural framework” for the Land Reform.

According to Võ, the true intent was to “gradually lead the mass movement, reorganize village- and commune-level government structures by eliminating local elites, replacing them with party cadres, and seizing political control in the countryside.”

The “Guiding Principles” in Section 1 direct cadres to: “Boldly mobilize the masses, strike at reactionary forces, weaken feudal power, satisfy the demands of the masses to the proper extent, organize the masses to actively participate in production, and actively participate in the resistance war.”

While Section 2 addresses rent reduction and land distribution, Section 3 defines the ultimate goals: “The objective and requirement is to establish political superiority in the countryside, consolidate the united front in rural areas, unite to increase production, and unite to support the resistance.”

Luo Guibo’s text functions as a manual for revolution rather than a blueprint for agrarian reform. This political calculus explains why the campaign generated so many casualties—including party loyalists and revolutionary contributors—who were publicly denounced, dispossessed, or executed. It raises a grim proverb: If one wants to throw a stone at a rat, must one accept breaking the household goods as well?

Victims of Land Reform

Hoàng Văn Chí, a former Việt Minh participant who lost relatives to the campaign, estimated in his book From Colonialism to Communism ( Từ Thực dân đến Cộng sản ) that as many as 600,000 people were killed. This claim significantly influenced Western politicians, including U.S. President Richard Nixon, who cited the campaign as a warning about the North Vietnamese government to justify American involvement in the Vietnam War.

Conversely, anti-war activists heavily criticized Hoàng Văn Chí’s work. They defended the Land Reform program as fundamentally sound, attributing any abuses to overzealous local commune-level officials rather than the central Vietnam Workers’ Party.

In his study, Alex Thái Võ reviews major Western publications on the Land Reform, especially those predating the Đổi Mới reforms. He notes that death toll estimates vary drastically across these texts, ranging from Hoàng Văn Chí’s 600,000 to the 2,000 deaths acknowledged by the Vietnamese government, and even lower figures like Gareth Porter’s estimate of 1,500 deaths.

Western Estimates of Deaths During Land Reform

Scholar Work Estimated deaths Hoàng Văn Chí From Colonialism to Communism (1963) 600,000 Gérard Tsongas J’ai vécu dans l’enfer communiste au Nord Viet-Nam et j’ai choisi la liberté (1960) 100,000 Bernard B. Fall The Two Vietnams (1963) 50,000 Edwin E. Moise Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level (1983) 3,000–15,000 Gareth Porter The Myth of the Bloodbath: North Vietnam’s Land Reform Reconsidered (1972) 1,500 Table 1: Estimated numbers of victims during Land Reform in major Western studies published before Đổi Mới. Table summarized by Vũ Quí Hạo Nhiên based on information from Alex Thái Võ’s research.

Alex Thái Võ also highlights the conflicting views on Hồ Chí Minh’s culpability. A comparison of Table 1 and Table 2 reveals a clear pattern: scholars who argue for a lower death toll generally absolve the party leadership of responsibility, whereas those citing higher casualty numbers arrive at the exact opposite conclusion.

Assessment of Responsibility Scholar(s) Only a local-level “leftist deviation” Edwin Moise, Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level (1983) Responsibility lies with Party leadership, but not Hồ Chí Minh Gérard Tsongas, J’ai vécu dans l’enfer communiste au Nord Viet-Nam et j’ai choisi la liberté (1960) Responsibility lies with Party leadership, including Hồ Chí Minh Bernard B. Fall, The Two Vietnams (1963) Possibly agrees that responsibility lies with Party leadership, including Hồ Chí Minh Hoàng Văn Chí, From Colonialism to Communism (1963) Table 2: Differing conclusions regarding responsibility for mistakes during the Land Reform campaign. Flowchart prepared by Vũ Quí Hạo Nhiên based on information from Alex Thái Võ’s research, converted into a table by the translator.

Relying on internal archival materials from Việt Nam, Alex Thái Võ concludes that Hồ Chí Minh was completely aware of the campaign's major abuses and possessed the power to stop them. This complicity is most evident in the execution of Cát Hanh Long Nguyễn Thị Năm in Thái Nguyên Province, who was labeled a “cruel landlord” and killed despite her family serving as major benefactors to the party.

(To be continued)

Vũ Quí Hạo Nhiên wrote this article in Vietnamese and published it in Luật Khoa Magazine on March 13, 2024. Đàm Vĩnh Hằng translated it into English for The Vietnamese Magazine.

References: +

Alex Thái Võ (2015), Nguyen Thi Nam and the Land Reform in North Vietnam, 1953, Journal of Vietnamese Studies .

Trung, T. (2015, October 11). Land Reform, Agrarian Reform, and Land to the Tiller. Luật Khoa tạp chí . https://luatkhoa.net/2015/10/cai-cach-ruong-dat-cai-cach-dien-dia-va-nguoi-cay-co-ruong

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